Why Are Business Ethics Important?

Why Are Business Ethics Important? straightaway for the connection or the blood line man, making more(prenominal) m unitaryy is non their alone target because they should pay prudence to different cardinal issues .Therefore vocation morality emerge as rattling signifi savetockst for modern golf-club and Modern Corporations. Further more, if they make lasts in condescension morals, thusly these companies de jump make water good reputations. This git be very helpful long- term. This screen focuses on how apple companionship using task moral philosophy and how apple causes their employees. In this essay, I guide very clearly defined line of credit sector ethics. Then it will talk roughly why logical argument ethics and motive ar crucial. On the other hand, motivating is a snappy factor in an organizations conquest. It is defined as the energy that drives an individual to act up work on roughthing. By developing penury, the wariness is equal to bring forth a pool of histrions who be passionate, hard working, ambitious, and committed non and to their jobs entirely also to the goals of the organization. Lastly, motif is encouraged by promoting requisites much(prenominal) as pay, job security, interesting work surroundings, and healthy dealingships among peers. This essay, which is composed of trinity parts why business ethics and motif be beta, the books review and some research of how orchard apple tree company using business ethics and how apple be actives their employees.Why are business ethics important?Business ethics is currently a very prominent business emergence, debates and dilemmas surrounding business ethics have move ined a lot of attention from various quarters. The only modestness that business ethics is be coming more and more important and it has had a big usurpation on our communities. match to my research, there are numerous reasons why business ethics readiness be regarded as an increasingly important area of involve. In summary, I can suggest the following reasons why a good catch of business ethics is important. Firstly, the power and influence of weeds in society is great than ever before. Evidence suggests that many members of the creation are uneasy with such developments (Bernstein, 2000). For instance, one recent poll of more than 20 leading frugalal nations revealed that almost 75% of residents believed large companies had too much influence on the determinations of their government (Cywinski, 2008). Secondly, business has the potential to tender a major part to our societies in terms of producing the products and services that we want. It also provides employment, paying taxes, and acting as an engine for our land development. As a 2008 global vista conducted by McKinsey shows, about 50% of business executives think that corporations make a by and large or somewhat substantiative contribution to society, while some 25% believe that their contribution is in general or somewhat prejudicious (McKinsey Quarterly, 2008). Thirdly, business malpractices have the potential to inflict enormous harm on individuals, on communities, and on the environment. For example, the BP gasoline company, because it made a mis go for, polluted large acreage of the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. Further more, few businesspeople have veritable formal business ethics education or nurture. Business ethics can help to improve compliancyable decision-making by managers or decision makers. The k nowledge of business ethics can help them to correctly identify, diagnose, analyze, and provide solutions to the ethical problems and dilemmas they are confronted with.Why are motivations important?First of both, the term motivation derives from the Latin word movere, meaning to move (Tansky, 2003). To be self-made or even more roaring, nowadays both private and public corporations need to maximize the use of their employees skills. Aslan (2011) said Employees were considered as solely one of the inputs during the factories production process in the initial stages of the industrial revolution. And further more, pitying imaging management is the most critical part fororganizations in todays thoroughgoingly militant business environment. Therefore, make the organization effective done incite employees that is the primary task of any managers. It is obvious that motivation can be primary(prenominal) factors that determines the work performance of employees. And therefore an organizations success mostly depends on the high-pitchedly motivated employees. But how do we motivate our subordinate? Maslow need tneedsy already solved some of these problems. If we know what drives the people, consequently we are able to make them to do what we want (Owens, 2004 Eren, 2007 Ko?el, 2010). Moreover, Kulkarni and Chiniwar (2009) said the Hawthorne Studies began the humankind race relations approach to management, and then the n eeds and motivation of employees become an important vertexic for managers. On the other hand motivation is a framework in so many aspects because people are usu all(prenominal)y motivated by different combining factors. Reinholt (2006) argues that the organizational science literary works on motivation has been polarized into two main aspects the organizational economic position focusing on extrinsic motivation and the organizational behavior position emphasizing native motivation any highly competive business environment. Therefore, make the organization effective through motivating employees that is the primary task of any managers. It is obvious that motivation can be main factors that determines the work performance of employees. And therefore an organizations success mostly depends on the highly motivated employees.But how do we motivate our subordinate?If we know what drives the people, then we are able to make them to do what we want (Owens, 2004 Eren, 2007 Ko?el, 2010). Moreover, Kulkarni and Chiniwar (2009) said the Hawthorne Studies began the human relations approach to management, and then the needs and motivation of employees become an important topic for managers. On the other hand motivation is a framework in so many aspects because people are usually motivated by different combination factors. Reinholt (2006) argues that the organizational science literature on motivation has been polarized into two main aspects the organizational economic position focusing on extrinsic motivation and the organizational behavior position emphasizing intrinsic motivations success mostly depends on the highly motivated employees.Literature ReviewOne of the reveals to successfully achieving organizational goals is to have fully motivated employees. According to Edward Staren (2009), motivators who implements positive reinforcements are more likely to produce desirable outcomes as compared to those who use negative ones. He also argues that factors of motivati on vary on the individual level, which marrow that an effective manager has to recognize the needs of every employee in put for them to drive towards satisfaction on their work.Richard Clark (2002) points out the issues in addressing motivation are different when it comes to individuals and team-based organizations. He furthered that satisfying motivations in groups is more complex because the management has to find a common interests or goals from the members of the group before addressing them as one. Work environment is also important in motivating people. former(a) motivators include fair requital and sufficient benefits such as insurances and performance-based incentives. In a study conducted by Poornima (2009) on employees in the IT industry, he cogitate that both pecuniary and non-monetary rewards are not only crucial but also crucial in building satisfaction. In his study on software development staff in India, Poornima found out that monetary rewards are not always an e ffective motivator especially if the employees have already striked their physiological needs. Michael Pepe (2010), on the other hand, place extrinsic motivational factors to contribute to decreasing employee job satisfaction and commitment to work. Using a combined sample of 46 managers and clerical staff at a supermarket store, Pepe found out that as employees increase their perception on supervisors support, their satisfaction towards work also increases. An empirical study by Mannenetr and Kaen (2010) conducted for the tourism industry of Thailand and Laos showed similar imports of positive working behavior if tended to(p) by effective motivational factors. Upon drawing a sample consisting of cxl workers who came from both the hotel business and voyage agencies, the authors supported their hypothesis by coming up with the following results (a) that the working behavior of people working for proceed agencies and hotel businesses had the same rank level, (2) that the work motivation of personnel department working for travel agencies has a direct and positive relationship with their work behavior, and (3) the working attitudes of personnel in the hotel business also had a positive relationship with their motivation at work. Their study showed that positive reinforcements will then result to positive motivation, thus exhibiting intermit and positive attitudes in the workplace. Similarly, a descriptive survey approach conducted by Joseph and Dai (2010) identified factors that stimulate employees to work at their workplace. The study is able to demonstrate through a sample of 143 participants that positive motivators identified were good pay, appreciation of their work, and job security are drivers of employee motivation.To measure the impact of motivation at work, Tremblay, Blanchard, Taylor, Pelletier, and Villenueve (2009) used Work Intrinsic and Extrinsic pauperism Scale (WEIMS) to identify its value in organizational psychology. Their study was image purpose first, to assess if WEIMS is an efficient tool in measuring motivation level and second, to assess factors affecting motivation among workers (military = 465 civilians = 192). Their findings found that WEIMS is reliable and pragmatic in producing valid results in measuring motivation in organizational psychology setting. Houts, Keppler, and Kalfayan (2010), on the other hand, focused on motivation theory, collective culture, and employment equity in relation to organizational behavior, human resource management, and ethics. The case study researched a true-to-life lawsuit filed against a company due to inappropriate team building exercise implemented among the feminine employees. The authors have exemplified that motivational factors may be used in the ruin direction to exploit employees and cast aspersions on them.On the other hand, I have found some information about business ethics. In my opinion, business does not have just one single goal, which is adding ec onomic value. Every company wants their business keep on profitable, that means sustainability. Andrew and Dirk (2004) said sustainability refers to the long maintenance of systems according to environment, economic and favorable considerations. This is the best way or the only one way to make a business keep survive in the modern society. The concept of sustainability is slackly regarded as having emerged from the environment perspective, most notably in forestry management (Hediger, 1999). The environment part is the staple fiber principle of sustainability. It concerns the effective management of physical resources that are conserved for the future. Meanwhile, all biosystems are regarded as having the finite resources and finite capacity. As this reason, sustainable human activity must operate at a level that does not threaten the health of those systems. That means we have to build a world for our posterity that can really enjoy the same living standards as us. So the Mine Companies, Oil Corporations, and steel manufactures should focus on this important issue. On the other hand, economic sustainability focuses on the economic performance of the corporation itself. For instance, the responsibility of management is to develop, produce, and market those products that can secure the long-term positivity of the corporation. That means management of the corporation should include the business ethics concepts, and the top managers or decision makers should understand what business ethics is. Because it definitely can help them make ethical decisions. The development of the social perspective on sustainability has tended to trail behind that of the environment and economic perspectives (Scott, Park, and Cocklin, 2000). The key issue in the social perspective on sustainability is that of social justice. Because corporations are the most important engines of economic development, so they have the duty to help people to ease up the just and equitable world. S ome of goals such as ensuring environmental sustainability, eradicating extreme poverty and hunger and achieving universal primary education. It is very difficult to achieve the goal, but all the companies have to try their best to do it.Secondly, bodily social responsibility still a big part for business ethics. Making a positive contribution to society might be regarded as a long-term investment in a safer, better and more equitable community, which subsequently benefits the corporation by creating an improved and inactive competitive context in which to do business (Porter and Kramer, 2006). For a company, the social responsibility is really important, and this is the most significant issue in business ethics. Corporate social responsibility that includes economic, intelligent, ethical and philanthropic responsibilities (Carroll, 1991). Therefore, if a company accomplishes all the duties, then this company will have a very good reputation and it will help it get the long-term competitive advantage. First of all, economic responsibility is the most basic principle in corporate social responsibility. Because companies have their admit shareholders who demand a intelligent return on their investment. And then, these bosses have their employees, so the employees want safe and more or less paid jobs. Both of them have customers who demand good quality products at a fair price. The legal responsibility of corporations demands that businesses abide by the law and never break the law or constitution. Carroll (1991) suggests that the satisfaction of legal responsibilities is need of all corporations seeking to be socially responsible. On the other hand, ethical responsibility obliges companies to do what is right, just and fair. Carroll (1991) argues that ethical responsibilities therefore consist of what is generally expected by society over and above economic and legal expectations. The last responsibility is philanthropic, this aspect of CSR addresses a gr eat variety of issues, such as charitable donations, support for local schools or hospitals and taking more care about employees and their families.Lastly, ethical issues in the firm-employee relation. So its the ethics inner the company. Every company has its own staff, so all the bosses try to motivate their employees and therefore they will be working so hard. But if they do not have a good relationship, maybe a ostracise will happen and it will be harmful for the corporation. So, the ethical issues in the firm-employee relation can assist with investors building a modern company. A first important area is the information insurance policy of the corporation (Hopkins and Hopkins 1999). It can be contended that employees have a right to know about the reason for downsizing a company and redundancy. If the company fires the employees, the company should make the compensation package regular, because they become unemployed people, so they need enough cash to bridge the time for f inding a in the buff job. Moreover, employees might take control of individual decisions relevant their own jobs, they are not only a pawn of the employers. Employees are also allowed to express their views on decision taken by employer. So a boss or chief operating officer for the company, he is not the only one decision maker or dictator. Their staffs also have the rights to make decisions. Therefore, I think employees have a full and codified right to determine major decisions n the company.How Apple Company Motivates employees and business ethicsApple Inc. the one of the most successful multinational corporation, worlds third-largest mobile phone maker after Samsung and Nokia. Fortune mag 2009 named Apple the most admired company in the United States in 2008, and in the world from 2008 to 2012. However, the company has received criticism for its contractors labor practices, and for Apples own environmental and business practices. But, as we all known nothing is perfect, so we can still learn some good stuffs about ethics and motivation from Apple Inc.Apple has been committed to the highest standards of social responsibility crossways its worldwide supply chain. It has been insist all of its suppliers provide safe working conditions, treat workers with dignity and respect, and moreover use environmentally responsible manufacturing processes. intimately terminate our relationship with those suppliers which do not respect the code or they refuse to take corrective actions based on audits (Apple supplier code, 2012). To respect labor and human right. Apples suppliers must uphold the rights of their workers. Apple does not remain firm involuntary labor, underage labor, excessive work hours, or discrimination. And as a member of the Fair Labor Association, Apple is setting a raw(a) standard in its industry for transparency and oversight. Moreover, Apples suppliers must create a safe and healthy work environment for their workers. Safety equipment, proper v entilation, and taking into custody procedures are just the beginning. On the other hand, Apples suppliers must use environmentally sound processes, including managing hazardous substances, treating wastewater, and limiting air emissions. Its all part of a commitment that starts with product design and continues through manufacturing and beyond. Lastly, the most important part for Apple is fostering and enforcing ethical practices. Apple has established ethics training programs for managers that cover proper recruitment of foreign workers, record-keeping and documentation of business practices, worker ID checks and age verification, tracking of working hours, and general management responsibilities. Apple-designed training programs have educated more than one million supply chain employees about their rights as workers, local laws and occupational health and safety (Apple, 2012).Look at how Apple motivates employees. In relation to creative organizations like Apple it is argued tha t the key success factor is employees motivation and therefore Apple need to be rewards employees in order to foster creative thinking and sustain high motivation (Tiddand Bessant, 2009). On the other hand, Kaplan Norton (1993) said Apple makes a wide employee survey for its departments every two years. The survey questions are only have-to doe with with how well employees understand the companys strategy. Apple motivates people depend on the result of the survey. It offers, such as product discounts or insurances (Apple, 2010).This policy can continue more and more employees work for Apple. Moreover, Steve Jobs, Apples CEO, argues that the latter is the gravitational force that puts all the bright and creative people together (Burrows, 2004). By the way, money and gifts are both good things to motivate people. For example, Apples employees receive d a uninvolved iPod Shuffle or iPhone as a thank you for their achievements (Apple Insider 2005 Meinck, 2007).So now we can easily t o find that Apple has a good policy or systems to do motivate employees and doing ethical business. As far as I concerned, Apple will innovate more and more new high tech products and soft wares. Because Apples motivation policy will attract more knowledge people come to work for it. In the future, Apple will become a good example of business ethics, and then organizations will learn business ethics from Apple. Therefore, in my opinion Apple will lead our future.ConclusionHope we can learn some about motivation and business ethic, and some good example from Apple. Motivation is a result of equally combined efforts of positive reinforcements and the personal goals of an employee. The literature review tells that there is a direct correlation between motivational factors and working behaviors of personnel. Theories such as Maslows Hierarchy of Needs, Equity Theory, and Goal reach Theory help in understanding how motivation is formed and achieved through positive and negative reinforc ements. It is also important for effective managers to realize that not all employees are aware that they are already unmotivated towards their work. On the other hand, business ethics is very important for the company in the modern society. Both developing and developed countries must focus on the theories and concepts. It is very difficult to make all the businesspeople doing ethical business, but I think in the future, it will be come true. Our human will build a perfect world.

Sources of stress in elite football players

Sources of accent mark in elect chemical group football game playersSources of attempt in selected football players.AbstractIn this piece we shall look at emphasis, its definition, and its emf occurrence in the humans of the professional football player. We ordain examine the possible extractions and ingestion latest publications get-gos to support our assertions.Having d angiotensin converting enzyme that we shall examine in event the movement of Mr Vasey, a youngster who embarked on a professional football occupational group n forevertheless did non make it onto the elect circuit. We shall examine his individualized forecast for evidence to support or refute our assessment.If you read virtually of the bed sheet newspapers, you could be forgiven for thinking that an elect football players life is teensy-weensy to a greater extent than huge amounts of m peerlessy, fast cars, a succession of pretty women and aeonian adulation from mind littlely adoring fan s when performing on the football pitch. almost of the more disre defineable papers w puddleethorn oerly d strong on a slightly varied ( and generally evenly false) aspect of their life, the drink, drugs, sordid invoke romps in hotel rooms and gambling.The truth of the matter, in the considerable legal date of cases, is that the elect footballer is a finely h unityd athletic supporter at the peak of his enlightening. He is required to perform fooling in training routines and in the gym, less frequently on the pitch, and put himself at risk of c beer great(p) injuries on a regular tail finale. All this is through in the right whopledge that he has worked his style up a professional hunt d induce to a comparatively condensed window of elect(ip) group mathematical operation and that in that respect be evermore umpteen more hopefuls who are climbing up behind him either waiting to push him off or to check him as he falls.You may view the introduction as rather melodramatic, however it is intended to illust respect the genuinely several(predicate) perceptions that are ordinarily held about the lifestyles of the elect footballer. In this piece we are going to follow the attemptes and pressures that are comm whole see by this elite group and to a fault how they (generally) man come along to cope with them.We also intend to illustrate the theoretical hassles approach by the elite footballer with a real case translate of a young man, Mr Peter Vasey who has gone a long way to becoming one of the elite group and then, for variant intellectuals, which we shall plow, decided non to pursue it further. render and Stress managementWe all think that we know what variant is and that we evoke substantially recognise it. It actually proves to be a in truth hard item to define as firstly, it is important to agnize between physical (biological) stress and mental stress. The two are distinctly relate but fundamentally differ ent. Secondly, stress is a multitude of different responses to a multitude of different potential ca lend oneselfs.In this piece we are going to affect the various prepares of psychological stress on elite footballers. In this scene we stinkpot look for a definition of stress in a pop outicularly informative article by Crampton et al. (1995) . She reviews the various definitions of stress.Hans Selye (1956), a pioneer in stress research, has defined stress as the non- peculiar(prenominal) response of the body to some(prenominal) demands made upon it (Kreitner Kinicki, 1992, p. 597). It is considered to be an internal show or reaction to allthing we consciously or unconsciously perceive as a threat, either real or imagined (Clarke, 1988). Stress drop upgrade feelings of frustration, fear, conflict, pressure, hurt, anger, sadness, inadequacy, guilt, loneliness, or confusion (Cavanagh, 1988). Individuals feel stressed when they are fired or lose a loved one (negative stress) as well as when they are promoted or go on a vacation (positive stress). objet dart umteen individuals believe they moldiness avoid stress to live longer, Freese (1976) argues that it is the sodium chloride and spice of life and that to agree no stress we would hire to be dead.Selve defines the basic biological interpretation of stress while the Kreitner definition starts to consist the possible psychological elements that generate the biological responses. Clarke adds to our lowstanding by considering the psychological responses that terminate be produced by various stresses and Cavanagh modifies the definition further by introducing the concept of positive and negative stress. Freese makes the very perceptive comment that stress is an total and inevitable feature of life itself. This particular insight bath be interpreted rather further insofar as at that place are some individuals who find stress hard to cope with (non-copers) and former(a)s who advance to positively thrive in disagreeable situations (copers)In legal blur of our footballers under consideration, we moldiness accept that stress terminate, and does affect capital punishment as we shall discuss (see on). Basic psychological theory shows us that individuals who are less than optimally stressed may non make enough effort to prevail hold of their designated goal whereas those who are all overstressed may non be able to focalize on the task in hand and perform to their maximum capacity. In either obtainuality it is clear that optimal performance is impaired. Equally it follows that on that point is an optimal amount of stress to grasp optimum performance. In practicable wrong, that optimal amount is only really possible to quantify in retrospect, and that is why many would describe the work of the police squad manager, coach and trainer as an art rather than a science.Haspels (2004) looked specifically at the levels of stress in pre- and post- check off footballers. Unsurp emergently, he constitute that the luxuriouslyest levels of stress were install pre- determine in an transnational feeble. atomic number 53 of the standard measures of stress in the resting subject is the cortisol level. regrettably physical activity also puts up cortisol levels so one of the major predictors of stress was rendered put onless in this study. Haspels also put in that the players performed shell when their stress levels were controlled sooner the zippyWork by Anshel (2001) looked at the coifs of clear-sighted stress on the acting field and came to the rather surprising goal that the major causes of stress in that particular situation was consistently found to be receiving what was sensed to be a bad call from the arbiter and making a major physical error (missed kick etc.) When these blushtualities occurred, the athletes relate tended to make negative cognitive appraisals followed by an avoidance act strategy. The selfsame(prenominal) stu dy also found that approach header was most normally seen after positive appraisals. These observations clearly support the transactional coping model. The use of appraisals and coping strategy was directly dependent on the perceived nature of the stressful event.Stress is an inherent part of football. It may, in part, be added to by the phantasmagorical expectations of the coaches, managers and the fans. Every aggroup in the league is told that this year the cup exit be ours at the beginning of the season and all the training, playing and quest volition be directed towards winning it. The reality, of course, is that only one team forget win it.Continued stress has been cited as the main reason for many of the younger players (including our study subject) for their lack of enjoyment and subsequently expiration the game. It is interesting to none that many book of circumstancess cite youth as one of the causes of acute stress on the grounds that the youngster may not yet feel developed the physical sports skills and coping strategies that the older, more experienced players start out. We allow not consider this element further as our carry on in this piece is primarily the elite footballer who, by definition, has al lay down mastered his game.In broad terms, according to Lazarus (1999), coping with stress consists of a persons conscious attempt at managing the demands and intensity of events perceived as stressful or change ones personal resources (e.g., positive affect, confidence, self-control) in attempting to reduce or manage ones perceived stress intensity. He also observes that one of the critical occurrenceors in an athletes adoption of a particular coping strategy is their cognitive appraisal of the stressful event or situation. Lazarus sums up his appreciation of the coping response as an athletes ability to accurately appraise the situation and the subsequent use of an appropriate coping strategy as the critical particularor in expla ining an athletes physiological and psychological adaptation to stress in sport.MethodOur method of investigation falls into two parts. In terms of the stresses faced by elite footballers and their coping mechanisms, we relieve oneself consulted, appraised and quoted authoritative literature on the subject. In terms of the real capers faced by Mr. Vasey, we have interviewed him and the dissolvents of the interview are appended to this piece as appendix ISources of potential stressClearly there are a great many sources of potential stress that our hypothetical elite footballer may face. slackly speaking they can be categorised into-Sport related stress. carrying into action foreboding Alpha male problems in a team game Age Competition stress unalterable motivation Exercise colony Constant levels of fittingness Injury cares Dietary concerns Drug monitoring concerns immature retirementFinancial Living up to a perceived lifestyle Transient nature of income Income dependent on continued performancepublicity related Media attention Family intrusion Privacy intrusionDirect stress-related problems suck up Drugs Relations coxa problems Cognitive functioningLet us consider severally one of these potential stresses in biteSports related stressesPerformance anxietyIn a well written and comprehensive article, Poczwardowski and Conroy (2002) discuss the stresses and coping mechanisms of elite performers. They categorise the various coping mechanisms into 36 sub-categories on the basis of direct interviews. The standard categorisations of problem-focused, emotion-focused, appraisal-focused, and avoidance-focused etc. were amplified and extended to cover a great rang of detected strategies. For example greater motivational changes after failure was describe by one athlete as a stimulus to train harder so as not to fail a second time.Stress can affect different sportsmen in different ways. Some come out of the closet to thrive and pe rform well, others find that it is a bar to optimum performance. Those elite footballers in the first category do not need any intervention as far as their performance in the game is pertain but an interesting study by Solberg et al. (2000) looked at the use of different relaxation techniques pre- and post performance in elite athletes. They found that athletes who practised meditation-related relaxation techniques had their blood lactate levels returning to normal faster than their non-relaxed counterparts. Contrary to expectation however, they found no significant difference in their levels of pre- physical exercise anxiety.Alpha-male problems in a team gameThis is an anecdotally reported phenomenon which does not step forrard to have been investigated from a scientific perspective. The typical alpha-male personality type is over re bowed in the elite footballer community. Aggression, speed, firmness of decision making, independence and speedy responses are all prized attribu tes of the elite footballer. These are seldom attributes that are seen in the personality types that are happy playing as an integral part of a team. football, by its very nature, is vie by a team of eleven on the pitch and off the pitch, a very oftentimes larger team is involved. Prima Donna demeanor, typical of the alpha-male, cannot be easily accommodated in such(prenominal) circumstances. It may be tolerated as long as the player concerned is delivering the issuances, but it can be an enormous cause of stress when the results s occur being delivered.Age Footballers get older. In terms of their professional use, they age mayhap faster than professionals in other fields. on that point is a very narrow window of opportunity for them to be at the top of their chosen field. To play at elite level for more than a decade is considered to be quite unusual. Part of the reason for this is the inwrought ageing process which is present in every other individual, but also there is the ever-present problem of both career operose defect and also the huge stick out and tear on the critical points (see on) which can give rise to significant wellness impairment in later on life.Turner et al. (2000) examined this problem in some detail and their results make mind-boggling reading. Their cohort were all professional footballers. 32% of whom reported having surgery on at to the lowest degree one occasion. Of those, over fractional had knee surgery and a quarter of those had complete joint replacements. 15% reported having hip surgery with another 9% awaiting surgery.Others in the group were having non-invasive treatments. Nearly half had physiotherapy in one form or another for injuries preserve during their career and over a quarter were having some form of analgesia or anti-inflammatory drugs for pain associated with football injuries.Osteoarthritis (OA) was diagnosed in at least one site in nearly half of the respondents and the vast majority of those were hips and knees. Significantly nearly 10% were registered as disabled due to OA and, very significantly, 72% of all respondents agreed with the statement I am concerned with how OA may affect my body in the future, clearly a major source of potential stress.(Barlow et al. 2000)Although joint problems were, predictably, seen as the most common pathology, other morbidity was found. Neuropsychological problems were not uncommon, presumably related to episodes of concussion or repeated trauma such as heading the football. 10 of the group reported problems such as memory complaints, dizziness and headaches.Sport related problems included early retirement, enforced reduction in working hours or even a change to a sedentary occupation. Not only can all of this be viewed as a major source of stress to those who are suffering because of it, but also it must be stressful for the still-active player who may know what may be in store for him.Competition stress This is an theatre of operations t hat has been extensively studied. Competition stress can be an enhancer for some players but equally it can be an inhibitor for others. in that respect is a distinction to be made between the trait of anxiety and the state of anxiety which is quite significant and, to a large extent, is a reflection of the ability of the individual to cope with and wish the stress levels.Sanderson and Reilly (1983) did the classic study in this field. Their target group were elite athletes. They found that the group of athletes who had the anxiety trait correlated utmostly with those who had high pre-race anxiety states and this correlated passing with the actual race performance. Very significantly, the sterling(prenominal) reduction in post-race anxiety levels was seen in those runners who performed well in their races.Constant motivationIn govern to maintain elite footballer placement a player must find a source of constant motivation. Initially, in his adolescent training days, the motiv ation may be personal glory and the goal orientated drive that comes with wishing to bring home the bacon professional status.Having achieved that goal however, the player must then find other motivational drives to maintain his progress. For some, it drive comes from considerations of status and wealth, for others it could be the need for adulation and fame, others may have personal goals of achieving the pinnacle of their chosen profession, these are the achievement-junkies that are seen in any professional walk of life. Whatever the motivation, success invariable comes at a cost. Decisions, and therefore usually sacrifices, have to be made on the route of attainment and achievement.In this piece we are considering specifically the elite footballer who, by definition, has managed to achieve the peak of his career. We should perhaps also consider the other athletes who by virtue of circumstance, situation, lack of motivation or perhaps even random differences in pre-natal myelina tion patterns, do not actually achieve the top of their profession. We shall discuss one such case in the case-study at the end of this piece. For every elite footballer, there are many who do not make the top echelon of players. There are arguably even more stress factors in this group who what to achieve but for one reason or another, cannot.As far as motivation is concerned, this is a major concern of every coach and manager in the rural area for reasons that we have set out above. Most premier teams will have psychologists who are motivational specialists. Motivational theory is evolving at a rapid rate and reversal theory is the current idea of the moment. A particularly good book on the subject is edited by Apter (2001) . It deals with not only the current thinking on the subject but also the actual evolution of the reversal theory from its conception in the 70s through to the applications of the present day. Significantly it also deals with the specific subject of stress eng endered by the motivational process. It is a highly expert book and therefore we do not propose to enter into detail about its contents, but it highlights the psychological issues of burn-out, apathy and depression that are commonly seen in constantly ( and inappropriately) motivated players.In the context of elite footballers, there is a fascinating and short article by McNair (1996) which looked at the yield of communicative boost on maximal effort output. The game of football is anecdotally renowned for the aggressive verbal abuse beloved by many trainers, coaches and managers. One may argue that it is only a manifestation of their own frustrations and stresses that causes them to behave in this way and it is certainly a cause of stress to the players (clearly it is intended to be). McNairs paper produces a cast-iron rationale for this encouragement as he found, by means of a very manifestly designed study, that verbal encouragement does increase the maximal output of osteal muscle. Interestingly, while measuring the actual power output, he also metrical the EMG tracings of the afferent nerves supplying the relevant muscles and found that verbal encouragement did not change the EMG readings, so the actual cause of the improvement was not ascertained but it was nonetheless real.Constant levels of fitnessConstant levels of fitness are clearly a pre-requisite for an elite footballer. There may well be periods of injury where the fitness levels fall, but they must be quickly re-established in order to achieve optimum performance levels. Fitness, in general terms equates with earning power and job security for a elite footballer, so the overriding goal must be to achieve peak fitness at all times. This, in certain circumstances, can become an obsession (See on exercise dependence)Exercise dependence more studies have shown the exercise can give rise to demonstrable health benefits both chronic and acute. There are some people for whom exercise actually b ecomes an obsession (Hurst et al. 2000). This is a real disease entity resulting in behaviour patterns that compel an individual to exercise despite the presence of obstacles. It also can produce both psychological and physical symptoms of withdrawal, if exercise cannot be taken (Pierce, 1994) ( Veale, 1995) (Thaxton 1982). These patterns are commoner in women and often associated with eating disorders but they are also seen in male athletes. Bamber et al. (2000) has authored a paper which produced a soft analysis of the whole issue. She found that elements of an eating disorder were always present to a greater or lesser degree, but that this was hard to quantify as many athletes will pursue closely monitored dietary regimes in any event.This syndrome is commonest in women, but does occur in men, particularly it seems in those who have low self-esteem or a poor self-image. It may be thought that such traits are unusual in the context of elite footballers but perceived body image do es not always reflect the true physique. Any experienced healthcare professional will tell you about the anorexic or muscle dysmorphic who perceives something quite different when they look in the mirror. It is commonly believed that such conditions are a result of compensation syndromes. People may have a need to pronounce to excel in one area if they feel that they are in some way failing in another.(Bamber 2003)Injury concerns Injury is the footballers constant fear. Football is a fast and occasionally impetuous game with frequent body contact being an intrinsic part of the game plan. Injury can vary from trivial to catastrophic or even life-threatening. Most injuries will have an impact on the elite footballer either at the time of the injury or, as we have seen above, at a later submit in his life. We have referred foregoing to the comparatively short earning window of the elite footballer and clearly there will be considerable stresses involved if that window is cut short for any reason.Because of the huge investment that the average elite footballer represents to any club, a huge amount of energy and resources are employed to get an injured player covering fire onto the field of play. It has to be said that the vast majority of professional clubs act responsibly in allowing injuries to heal correctly before returning the player to training, but there will be the inevitable pressure on the less-than-scrupulous coach to get the player back on the field before full recovery has taken place. This has cost to the player in terms of impaired performance and also in terms of long term problems arising from an incompletely healed injury.Ekstrand et al. (2004) looked at the problem as a result of the 2002 World Cup. They cite one of the major reasons for injury as being the frequency of the matches in a jammed calendar for the top players. Injuries which would normally be regarded as comparatively peanut did not get the usual chance to heal completely be fore the next game was due to be played. This resulted in a rising accumulative total of injuries above what might otherwise be evaluate over a comparatively short period.The study found that, over the ten months of the World Cup games the average player played 36 matches. The top players form each team played, on average, 46 matches over the same period. The survey showed that the players who played in the World Cup matches sustained 29% more injuries than players from the same teams who did not play. 32% underperformed when compared to their normal standard. These players had played statistically more matches than those who were felt to have played better than expected. One major finding was that 60% of the players who had played more than one match in the week before a World Cup match were either injured or underperformed during the World Cup game. The clear evidence from this study is that tiredness and physical burnout affects performance in elite footballers. At the highest levels, players, clubs and coaches should be aware that this is a real phenomenon. And, at the very least, is a considerable cause of stress to the players.Orchard and Seward (2002) Took this concept a stage further and looked at the injuries sustained by the entire Australian Football League over seasons from 1997-2000. Their findings are a major source of concern to the elite footballer world.In a season each team of 40 players would expect to receive 39 separate injuries. Clearly some players would be injured more than once (The major predisposing factor for injury is a pre-existing injury). The injury prevalence of players missing through injury in a week was 16% with a recurrence rate of 17%. They found that the commonest injury was to the hamstrings, followed by ACL strains and then groin injuries. For an elite footballer who depends upon his ability to play for his income, these manikins represent a great cause of potential stress.Before leaving this area, we should consider one other area of injury which we touched upon anterior, and that is the sequelae of concussion. Bloom et al (2004)looked at this particular problem in great detail with particular reference to the psychological changes that were observe to occur after the injury. After suffering a concussive injury, the elite footballer was found to suffer from a greater incidence of symptoms of isolation, pain,anxiety, and disruption of daily life as a result of the injury. The investigators found that a source of added stress was, unexpectedly, from other team members who appeared to be giving support but were subliminally putting pressure on the injured athlete to return to play. The investigators found a worrying number of unexpected psychological symptoms including anger, denial, depression, distress, bargaining, and shock. Clearly this necessarily to be both recognised and addressed if the impact of the injury is not to be a further source of stress to the injured footballerDietary concer nsThe elite footballer must always be at peak fitness and as a result his diet must always be under scrutiny. Fitness generally needs a BMI in the region of 20-23. Significant weight gains beyond this range not only reduce performance levels but also increase the wear and tear on the joints. We have already discussed the extent to which the knee joint is stressed during football training and playing. Adding weight to this joint is clearly only going to add to the degenerative changes that occur.An elite footballer needs to be able to accelerate his body mass rapidly in a given direction. It follows that the greater the body weight, the greater effort is needed. He will know this both at a cerebral level and also at an instinctive level. He will know that if his weight goes up significantly then it becomes harder for him to run as fast and to turn as efficiently. The average elite footballer is therefore very careful with regard to his diet. The average man in the population can affo rd to go out for an occasional extravagant meal or the odd eventide or two at the pub without worrying too much about the consequences. The consequences for the elite footballer are that, in doing such things he would have to reduce his calorie intake over the next hardly a(prenominal) days in order to maintain the status quo. This again can become a major source of stress for many.As the long time go by, the average male tends to become slower and to put on weight as a natural process. This insidious reduction in the bodys efficiency is obviously a concern to a footballer who will often try to combat this trend with ever more aggressive training programmes and dietary regimes again another source of stress.Drug monitoring concernsA number of elite footballers have hit the headlines lately as a result of random drug tests, either through failing or missing them. Doping and drug-enhanced training is a fact of professional football life in the current climate. It follows that the r egulatory powers have to be ruthless in their quest for a drug-free sport. The fact that some players do gamble against the odds and take performance enhancing medications and drugs is a reflection of the stress and pressure that they feel under to constantly perform. It equally follows that they must feel that their performance is not good enough if they need to resort to such measures.The problems do not stop at performance enhancing drugs. Stress and other factors may tempt a player to use drugs of a different sort. Recreational drugs are common in elite footballer circles. In support of this statement we would consider the paper by Turner (2003) In which he states that a recently retired elite footballer claimed that 80% of elite footballers in Australia had either been offered or used recreational drugs. This statement was extensively reported in the Press and other sources quoted the figure as being nearer 30%. The truth of the matter will clearly never be known but it can be contrasted with the figure from the UK which shows that over 18% of all the positive drugs screening tests done on athletes are currently for recreational drugs. This can be put in perspective against the 35% positive findings for stimulants and 25% for anabolic agents wrong retirementRetirement is a fact of life for all workers. As we have discussed earlier, retirement from active playing and therefore from a high earning capacity tends to come at a much earlier age for a footballer. It is therefore a major incentive to keep playing at a high level for as long as possible.Retirement through the natural ageing process is something that the elite footballer obviously has to come to terms with. It is comparatively unusual for a top rank footballer to be playing into his forties. He may have the experience to play well, but he is always judged on his results, and the fact of the matter is that there will always be younger players who will generally be faster and filled with raw enth usiasm ready to jump into any vacant slot at the top. The elite footballer therefore knows that his playing days are always numbered.We have discussed earlier the problems faced by the elite footballer in respect of the ever-present danger of injury. Clearly a career-ending injury can come at any time. It can be career-ending because of a dramatic incident such as a major fracture of a major arise or it can be a more subtle process, a bad tackle gives rise to an ankle injury which, in turn gives rise to an unstable ankle that does not allow the pivoting action indispensable for efficient play. It becomes obvious that the player is not performing as well as another player in the squad and therefore he is replaced with greater frequency and then he becomes dispirited and ultimately dropped from the team. The end process is just the same in either eventuality issue of an active playing career and the concurrent loss of high earning capacity.The result can be devastating for a man who, in order to achieve elite footballer status, may well have given over a substantial proportion of his adolescent and adult life to improving and perfecting his football skills. He finds himself effectively out of a job at an age where most men are still looking forward to at least twenty more years of productive work. The straightaway openings for him are limited to training, coaching or managing, all of which are highly competitive as they have been filled by his footballing predecessors and generally, they are not as well paid as his previous career. The stresses and psychological traumas are all too easy to see if the elite footballer has not been particularly level-headed in his approach to the profession.The unlikely body of Windsor Insurance Brokers Ltd. make a study of an investigation into the career-ending incidents of professional footballers in the UK (1997) which makes interesting reading. They did not analyse the actual levels of stress that we are concerned abou t in this piece, but their findings make sobering reading to the current generation of elite footballers. It would appear that few elite footballers actually reach retirement age without a significant injury. That injury is responsible (either directly or indirectly) for the eventual d

Effect of Pre-Existing Schemas on Memory Recall

Effect of Pre-Existing Schemas on com gradeer remembering Rec solelyAasimah NabeebocusAbstractPrevious look into has shown that everyday fund fails in being able to discard and represent data accurately, measured employ a begining delegate and intuition task. Researchers select explained this in damage of a schema theory. That is individuals recall and represent in make upation based on their pre-existing schemas. nevertheless much research conducted in this field, is out(p) termd, therefore this afoot(predicate) admit aimed to shed light on this by use the aforementi unmatchabled(prenominal) procedure as Results indicate that temporary hookup there was a world-shaking inequality in the archetype of the quantify betwixt the weigherpart and repositing power. No noteworthy conflicts were form in the choice of recall by participants in the entrepot or copy context. The final result partly supports nearly earlier research, and the implications of this call uping suggest potential real life applications.historically researchers have highlighted the importance of everyday remembrance. But contrary to this popular place emerging research have unquestionablely shown that everyday memory lacks true statement and lead to biases in perception of everyday objects and situations. Nickerson and Adams (1982) investigated this idea whereby participants were instructed to recall and lay down both sides of a U.S. penny. They prove that recall was inaccurate and relatively poor, and that the features determine by the participants did not match correctly to the wholenesss on the coin. Morris (1988) who investigated this further found that British students who were asked to identify and recall the right coin, only a teeny-weeny (15 %) percentage of students were able to recall the appearance of the coin. This indicates that simply notioning at an object constantly does not necessarily mean that we pay help and that the memory formed is correctly retained.Cohen (1989) proposes a theory that best explains this judgement of failure in accurate memory recall. Schema theory suggests that our capacity to recall information is based on existing friendship and precedent get a lines. In addition, it claims that our day-to-day memory consists of a set of schemas, or knowledge structures through which we form our knowledge of objects, situations, events, or actions t learnt from previous experience.A study that lends firm support to this theory was examined by Allport and communal carrier (1947). In their study participants were shown a photograph of a black young-begetting(prenominal) being menaced by a white male on the subway. When participants were questioned posterior on about the offender, participants were to a greater extent probable to recall and identify the black humanity as the offender. It appears therefore that limiting ourselves to what we already know can one-sided ones view on how they may per ceived and recall a situation or person.Further to a greater extent, a study by Williams and Richards (1993) investigated the piece of everyday memory on our ability to accurately recall papistical consequences on a clock. The advantage of using such system was utilitarian , as the number quadruplet was correspond differently on a clock than to how it appears in Roman print numerals. Therefore, by varying the conditions in which participants engaged, they were able to detect whether participants resorted to using their conventional memory when trying to ply and recall the numbers on the clock. The three conditions included (forewarned) where participants were instructed to look at the clock for a condensed period of m, as they would be asked to draw it after it had been taken away from their sight, ( awe) in this condition participants were simply asked to look at the clock, and so later asked to draw it once it had been taken away, (copy) in this condition participant s were instructed to draw the clock that appeared in front of them. Their results indicated that in the forewarned and storm condition, participants were more likely to make mistakes and draw the forecast four as IV, whereas those participants in the copy condition move the go through four precisely to how it appeared on the clock e.g. IIII. Therefore it appears that the participants in the twain memory conditions were more likely to recall information based on their schematic memory, this supports the theory that schemas do directly influence how we recall and represent information.However a limitation that stems from this study is that the participants in the copy condition were effortlessly brief the clock that appeared in front of them, therefore schemas were not useful when asked to draw the clock. A study that accounts for this limitation is by Richard, French and Harris (1996). In their study the same method was applied, as participants engaged in 3 conditions, (forewar ned, surprise, copy) and were asked to draw the clock and additionally they were asked to participate in a recognition task afterwards. Their results showed that the participants in the copy condition, when asked to choose betwixt twain pictures and identify which of the twain clocks presented to them had the correct figure i.e. (4). Participants were more likely to recall the figure (4) being represented as IV on the clock kinda than IIII.In sum, while these purposes provide evidence that schemas do have an impact on our ability to recall and recognise information. a great deal of the research conducted is outdated. Therefore, the findings cited above suggests that more recent research is to be conducted to find out whether the same results would be obtained at this present term. For this reason, the current study aimed to repeat the same procedure utilise in previous research in order to shed light on this issue. Since findings have been consistent, we proposed cardinal canvassal conjecture based on Richard Harris (1993) and French Harris (1996) findings , which is stated belowH1 In the plan task, there will be a epochal difference between the two conditions i.e. memory condition and copy condition. The participants in the memory condition will be more likely to incorrectly represent the figure (4) as IV compared to participants in the copy condition.H2 In the recognition task, there will be a significant difference between the two conditions i.e. memory condition and copy condition. Of the participants who accurately represented the figure four as IIII in the drawing task, those in the copy condition will be more likely to accurately recall the figure four as IIII compared to participants in the memory condition.MethodParticipantsIn the study 61 students were undertaking this experiment . However, two were excluded from the analysis because one participant drew the clock with 1,2,3,4 o clock etc. rather than Roman numerals, and a second d id not complete the critical IIII or IV choice. Therefore our data only included a wide-cut number of 59 participants, this included 4 males and 55 females, aged between 18 and 30 years old. The mean for the age=19.21, SD=1.18, range=18-30.The participants were all undergraduate psychology students at Queen Mary University of London and were selected from beginning(a) year undergraduate at Queen Mary. The participants were appropriately briefed prior to the experiment and informed consent was obtained. Lastly, the researcher visualised that all ethical guidelines were met and was approved by Queen Mary University of London Ethics Committee.DesignIn this experiment, a between -subject design was used as participants only took part in one condition. The researcher also insured that all participants were randomly allocated to individually condition. The independent variable were the three types of conditions (surprise, forewarned and copy). While the dependent variable was whether participants drew or recognised the figure (4) as IV or IIII and how often participants recall or recognised the figure (4) as being IV or IIII.ProcedureSmall groups of participants took part in separately condition, this was to ensure that all participants observed the clock clearly and no obstructions were present. The clock used in the original studies was a standard clock made by Samuel Bishop of London, with clear Roman Numerals on the face. The figure (4) appeared as IIII on the clock. The time on the clock was adjusted at ten past seven. In this current experiment, a picture of the clock was employed rather than the actual clock used in French and Richard (1993) study.The experiment compromised of 3 conditions (forewarned, surprise and copy). Each group of participants were assigned to one of these conditions. These conditions were carried out chronologically.In the for the first time condition (surprise). Participants were informed to simply look at the clock for a period of 5 minutes. Once the picture had been taken away from their sight. Participants were then asked to draw the clock from memory.In the second condition (forewarned). Participants were informed that they would be asked to draw the clock after observing the clock for a short period of time. But that they could only draw the clock, once the image had been taken out of their sight.In the third condition (copy). Participants were informed to observe the clock and draw the clock.In all the conditions participants were asked to state on their drawing canvas their age, sex, conditions ( and personal identifier, this was composed of their mothers first two initials and their date of birth.In all the conditions (forewarned, surprise, copy) a recognition task was also carried out after the drawing task. This was the same method employed by Richard Harris (1996) in their study. In the recognition task, participants were presented with two pictures of the clock at the same time and asked to c hoose the correct picture that matched the clock that they had previously observed. In each of the group, half of the participants obtained both pictures in which the correct picture was placed on the left, and the rest of the participants obtained both pictures in which the correct picture was placed on the right. After participants had made their choice they were asked to write down which conditions they took part in (i.e. 1st, 2nd or 3rd) age, sex and personal identifier this was to ensure that their data from the drawing task could be matched accordingly. MW1ResultsCount 24 7IV anticipate count 18.4 12.6Count 11 17IIII Expected count 16.6 11.4MC CCCount 4 11IV Expected count 5.7 9.3Count 7 7IIII Expected count 5.3 8.7All the participants drawing were assessed to see whether they presented the figure four as IV or IIII. The relative frequency of this is shown for each condition is shown below.There was no difference in the results between the forewarned and surprised condition, as a result these two data were collapsed into one condition called memory condition, this was carried out in order to append the statistical power of the rise. Given the mental testing is categorical, we used a non-parametric test to examine whether the differences were significant. A chi-square test was conducted on the data. The test revealed that there was a significant difference between how participants represented the number 4 in each condition, chi-square (1)=8.87,p=. 003.In the recognition data, analysis was only taken for those participants who accurately dew four as IIII in the first part of the study (drawing task) .A chi-square was conducted on the data to see if there was a significant difference in participants ability to identify the correct clock from two possible options, whether they had previously copied or drawn it from memory. The test revealed that there was no significant difference between the choices in recall made by participatns in the mempry and copy condition, chi-square (1)=1.68, p .05MW3DiscussionThis study aimed to add to previous old research by looking at whether the same result would be found at this current time. The results showed that in the drawing task there was a significant difference in the frequencies i.e. whether they accurately or wrongly represented the figure (4) as either IV or IIII between the two conditions. However there was no significant difference between the numbers of correct recalls made by participants in the recognition task. Therefore, our first experimental hypothesis is supported while our second hypothesis is rejected. This shows that in the drawing task, those participants in the memory conditions who incorrectly represented the figure (4) as IV were more likely to use their schematic memory rather than actually processing the information. However those participants in the copy condition who accurately drew the figure (4) in the drawing task alonewrongly recalled the figure (4) as IV in the drawing task. This shows that observing the clock while drawing did not facilitate the participant in processing or encoding that information, thus affecting their ability to accurately recall it later on.MW4These findings are in accordance with Williams et al (1993) study that found that in the drawing task, participants in the copy condition were accurate in their representation of the four compared to participants in the memory condition (forewarned and surprised). Additionally, our results is partially supported by Richard, French et al (1996) who found that those in the copy condition were more likely to recall the figure (4) inaccurately though they had represented the number 4 accurately in the drawing task. A plausible comment, may be that participants were effortlessly drawing what appeared in front of them, therefore more likely to get it right in the drawing task but when asked to recall the information as they did not pay attention they resorted to using their schemas in order to recall what the figure (4) appeared as on the clock.However, contradictory our results this study did find a significant difference between the memory condition and copy condition when asked to recall. As those in the memory condition who represented the figure (4) accurately in the drawing task, none of these participants inaccurately recalled the four in the recognition task.The fact that that these results are only partially consistent with previous research points to a possible limitation inwardly the study. Due to our study consisting a small sample size, this suggests a chance in creating a Type II MW5error. A type two error is falsely rejecting the null hypothesis and stating that the results are due to chance. Therefore having a larger sample may have yielded more statistically powerful results, this is supported by Richard et al (1996) who found a statistically significant difference. Additionally, using a different statistical test may have been better giv en the small sample size, a good alternative would have been a Fisher exact test MW6this is again supported by Richard et al (1996) who found statistically significant difference when running a fisher test.Further, one possible explanation for the outcome of this result is the impact of interference on students schematic memoryMW7. A study by Nickerson and Adams (1979) suggested that participants who drew the penny incorrectly may have have difficulty in differentiating between features of an old and current penny. This results indicates that roman numerals learned at school may have interfered with participatns ability to form new memories of the clock face, this is increasingly more prominent in younger students as they have had less exposure to roman numeral clock faces. Therefore participants may have recognised the number 4 as IV rather than IIII.Finally, the impact of these findings are not only interesting, but could hold significance in real life situations . In a case stud y in which a young lady Jennfier Thompson (1984) was raped, it was found that when asked to identity her rapist she falsely accused an innocent man . This finding suggest that memories are not infallible and can be influenced slow by schemas or other factors.Nickerson, R. S., Adams, M. J. (1979). Long-term memory for a common object.Cognitive Psychology,11(3), 287-307.MW1Perfect method, well done MW2You need to portion out the forewarned and surprise memory conditions in the initial frequency table. You can then explain why the conditions were collapsed together afterwards (this is what Richards and co did)MW3This isnt reported correctly. You need to put it inside brackets, and you need to use the Greek symbol for Chi which is MW4If youre looking to cut words, I think these two paragraphs can be shortened.MW5This is written as Type IIGood old roman numerals MW6Needs capitals Fishers Exact TestMW7As I said before, this is not a limitation. This is a possible explanation for the re sults.

Development of Emulsion Property

Development of Emulsion Property pupils name Yang JiangAbstractIn recent years, photographic photographic emulsion has subjectn an important port in our life, such(prenominal) as cosmetic and few some other cosmetic industries. The station of the emulsion has a direct w tout ensembleop on our daily life. This writing chose the regale of produce bath jelly to provide what makes the property change, how to catch it and how to make it better. In technically, chose assorted viscosity, expediteing rate and concentrate to cash in ones chips different overlap. Aim to find the beaver one.IntroductionAn emulsion is formed when two more insoluble frames ar blended together with one of them is in the form of liquefiable fox. Emulsions operate to a two-phase system ofmatter which is calledcolloids. The emulsion is generally non-transpargonnt and inherently unstable. The diameter of drop is between 100nm to 10mm, and the coat of it of it could be observed by an optical mi croscope. up to now in this work, an emulsion consisting of two gass is the objective many companies and institutions tend to take advantages of. To sum up, two tokens of this emulsion faecal matter be formed by salmagundi. The one which shapes into a body of water supply-in- rock oil colour system is called W/O emulsion and other is oil-in-water system which is called O/W emulsion.Emulsion is widely used in manufacturing as a common form of formulated products, and whose properties have been examine in agriculture, medicine, cosmetics and food. Some kinds of emulsion atomic number 18 necessities in daily life, such as milk, ice cream, vinaigrettes, rubber, latex, crude oil emulsions and even some penetrating fluids formetal working. However, an emulsion good deal non be obtained easily because emulsions cannot be formed spontaneously. Energy is take to form an emulsion through shaking, stir, homogenizing or exposure to power ultrasound. And in this proposal, the emul sion is formed by stir. Some motley thingumajigs go out be adopted to blend Silicon oil and water together. So it is probable that some parameters can be fixed as constant and the others atomic number 18 what we are interested in to investigate.A number of the physicochemical properties of emulsions can only be understood with reference to their dynamic nature. many another(prenominal) properties work come on on the volume fraction of both phases and the lineament of emulsifier present. Because of the belittled solvability of oil in water it is normally assumed that the oil in an emulsion droplet is isolated from that in neighboring droplets. Emulsion constancy refers to as the ability of resisting change in its properties over time. Coalescence happens when droplets crash into apiece other and combine to form a broadr droplet, so the esteem droplet size increases over time. Emulsions can similarly undergocreaming, in which the droplets rise to the tip of the emuls ion.In order to keep the emulsion stability, an appropriate surface alive(p) agent should be decided to add into the system to increase the kinetic stability of an emulsion so that the size of the droplets keep unchangeable significantly with time.The emulsions produced by dispersion of a liquid into some other insoluble liquid is an aspect of great benefits in cosmetic, p equipment casualtyaceutical, chemical, and food industries. Present industrial methods use in emulsification operatees have been fully developed and studied. For example, rotor stator devices, and unmoving mixers techniques are well-accepted as important ways of producing small droplets but with another side effects on the liquids, bringing say-so hazards to the properties of compounds. It has been proved by plenty of researchers that droplet size is one factor of the nearly difficult ones to control because some instability phases will be produced among this during the controlling process.Rotor-stator mix ers are usually used for processing of disperse/ tell on solid instalments and aggregates and also to colloidal liquid-liquid systems. much(prenominal) as cosmetic, food, pharmaceutical, health care products and many other industries. As the drop size affects the processing and the properties of the products in the emulsification. The mechanisms that break the drops is the key for founding process. Rotor and stator are the two main mechanisms which can break drops in rotor-stator devices.For emulsification, the industrial processing and some of the product properties are crookd by the drop size. In a two-phase process, the mass vary rate is proportional to the interfacial area between the two phases. The drop size distribution is varied with the conditions inside the vessel and the length of assortment time and consequently the interfacial area is changed with it. Hence successful processing steps are designed by establishing deep understanding of the mechanism of drop prof ligacy. In general, two competing theories have been proved on drop breakup mechanisms to die a good explanation to this phenomenon. So one theory shows that droplet breakup is produced by turbulent eddies (energy dissipation rate) and another is due to the agitator soak rate.Another widely used mixing device static mixers, which are also called motionless mixers, have become standard equipment in the process industries. Their application in continuous processes is a good choice to traditionalistic agitation because generally better performance can be obtained with this device at lower cost.There are also some other kinds of mixing devices such as CSTR and batch reactor. But according to the cost, property of the emulsion, the conditions in the lab and many other factors I chose rotor-stator mixer as the agitator.The working principle of rotor-stator mixture is shown as below in encipher 1.Figure 1 Basic principle of rotor stator mixture when meldningIn this essay, comparing d ifferent emulsion got from different conditions of the mixing due to different conditions of mixing have a direct die that the droplet size changed. The property of the emulsion is influenced by the droplet size.The viscosity and storage modulus of W/O and O/W fine operose emulsions were increased by the reduction of droplet size. And the shear-thinning effects got stronger in the fine emulsionsAs silicon oil is the resource which is manly used in cosmetics. How bath gel be different by the different size of droplet is the main purpose. As the rheology of emulsion is influenced by the droplet size, various of bath gel might be produced with different property.Background3.1Theory3.2. Literature reviewThere have been a large amount of methods of producing polymer emulsions in industrial manufacturing. One of the mainly way of them is emulsion polymerization. Emulsion polymerization has large polymer relative molecular mass, fast response rate, low pollution and the equipment and t echnology with which to produce the emulsion products is easy to get and operated in generation. Recently, more and more scientists have focused on this area. Many factors have an important influence on both yield and property of the polymerization product in the process of emulsion polymerization, such as the type and denseness of emulsifier, the sorts and concentration of initiator, the glitz of stir, reaction temperature, the category and concentration of electrolyte and some other technological parameters.Emulsion polymerization system is a multiphase system, the effect of stirring turn the monomer into droplet separately, which is good for heat enchant and mass transfer. And keep the system mixing, constant temperature, avoid from local overheating. The yield and prime(prenominal) of the emulsion polymer are controlled by stir directly. Many scholars carried out extensive research on the influence of the mixing of emulsion polymerization. Such as Shunmukhan et al, Omi et al, Nomura et al who had studied the effects of mixing on low solid subject area of the emulsion. Vanderhoff, M. Zubitor, S. Oprea et al, Matejicek et al who has studied the effects of mixing on high gear solid content emulsion polymerization ( 50%).This paper elaborated how the mixing effects on the quality of products.Influence of the musical mode of agitator on polymerizationThe production capacity of reactor, the quality of product and the accident caused by cooling or heating are all relate to the type of agitator. Shearing action, circulating mode and the mixed-ability which were generated by mixing are given by the specific style of agitator. And so does the conjure of macro- ascend. 3 factors should be considered when selecting the style of agitator 1. High heat transfer coefficient should be ensure from the reactor wall or Immersion pealing to the reactants 2. An obvious effect should be provided in the stirring 3. Low usance of energy in the stirring. Therefore, in the process of emulsion polymerization, especially for the industrialise production, we should find out the most appropriate style of agitator by strengthen the research around the relation between mixer and emulsion polymerization.Influence of mixing intensity on the emulsion polymerization 2.1 The influence of mixing intensity on latex segment sizeIn the process of emulsion polymerization, mixing intensity has a direct touch on the latex particle size. With the revolution of mixing higher, monomer was divided into little beads, the surface area of monomer droplet was larger per cubic centimeter of water, the amount of emulgator adsorbed on the surface was increased, the numbers of micelle were reduced per cubic centimeter of water, the rate of nucleation diminish in phase 1, so does the emulsion grains generated, if the initial monomer amount is fixed, the particle size of latex increases. With the increase of stirring intensity, latex particle size also increases in the pro cess of semi-continuous emulsion polymerization are examine and verified by M. Zubitur et al, S. Opera. And they further baksheeshs out that the stirring intensity also affect the nucleation mechanism under the low intensity, the micellar nucleation and monomer droplet nucleation were presented. And the distribution of particle size is unimodal features. Therefore, in the emulsion polymerization, the diameter of latex particle is related to the number of latex particle, with the increase of stirring intensity, the number of latex particle drop-offd, the diameter of latex particle increased, vice versa.2.2 The influence of mixing intensity on the stability of emulsionEmulsion stability is one of the most valuable properties in researches involving emulsions concerned by numerous scientists. The influence of stirring intensity on the emulsion stability is mainly manifested in polymerization stability. During the process of emulsion polymerization, droplet condensation whitethorn ha ppen raised by coalescence of latex particles within the emulsion, as a result of the outlet of polymer emulsion stability. In other cases, during the emulsion polymerization, the condensate whitethorn get on the reactor components which are accumulated in a thickset layer. This is one kind of phenomenon of gel. These phenomena may make the color of emulsion wither away, delicate feeling disappear, affecting the quality of the product seriously.Stability of high solid content emulsion has two important areas which should be concentrated on to investigate further. On one hand, with an increase in stirring intensity and collision frequency, the emulsion stability which plays an important role in manufacturing products will be decreased. On the other hand, due to the solid content increased inside the emulsion, and the high emulsion viscosity, the emulsion stability in the heat transfer process impact much on the quality of emulsion products. Especially when the mixing intensity i s too high, the material immanent shearing action is too frequent the stability of the emulsion polymerization is easy to destroy so finding some methods to keep its stability should be paid special attention to control the mixing intensity.Inpharmaceutics,hairstyling,personal hygiene, andcosmetics, emulsions are frequently used. These are usually oil and water emulsions but dispersed, and which is continuous depends in many cases on thepharmaceutical formulation. These emulsions may be calledcreams,ointments,liniments(balms),pastes,films, orliquids, depending mostly on their oil-to-water ratios, other additives, and their intended driveway of administration.1011The first 5 aretopicaldosage forms, and may be used on the surface of theskin,transdermally,ophthalmically,rectally, orvaginally. A highly liquid emulsion may also be usedorally, or may beinjectedin some cases.10Popular medications occurring in emulsion form holdcalamine lotion,cod liver oil,Polysporin,cortisolcream,Canest en, andFleet.Microemulsions are used to delivervaccinesand sweep awaymicrobes.12Typical emulsions used in these techniques are nanoemulsions ofsoybean oil, with particles that are 400-600nm in diameter.13The process is not chemical, as with other types ofantimicrobialtreatments, but mechanical. The smaller the droplet the greater thesurface tensionand thus the greater the force required to flow with otherlipids. The oil is emulsified with detergents using ahigh-shear mixerto stabilize the emulsion so, when they encounter the lipids in thecell membraneor envelope ofbacteriaorviruses, they force the lipids to merge with themselves. On a mass scale, in effect this disintegrates the membrane and kills the pathogen. The soybean oil emulsion does not harm normal human cells, or the cells of most otherhigher organisms, with the exceptions of spermatozoon cellsandblood cells, which are vulnerable to nanoemulsions due to the peculiarities of their membrane structures. For this reason, thes e nanoemulsions are not currently usedintravenously(IV). The most effective application of this type of nanoemulsion is for thedisinfectionofsurfaces. Some types of nanoemulsions have been shown to effectively destroyHIV-1andtuberculosispathogens on non-poroussurfaces.Objectives3.3.1 In this experiment, the first objective is to find the relationship of drop size and stirring intensity. In most cases, an increase in stirring intensity will cause an decrease in the size of every droplet inside of the oil-in-water emulsion. In order to keep the stability of the system, a fixed concentration of surfactant (SLES) will be added in each experiment to keep a balance between the forces in both directions. Furthermore, the quantity of SLES used in every system should be kept the same. Besides, the time for this kind of experiments is not enough to carry out all, so only one type of the agitator will be investigated. Therefore, the parameters which can be changed are the speed of the agitato r, the oil viscosity and different time intervals.The second objective is to affair droplet size to the viscosity of oil. Different concentration and viscosity of oil may render the emulsion system unstable with respect to time, because different oil viscosity means different Reynolds number showing different flow regime that the emulsion is. And thus the other important properties of the emulsion should be affected by the mean viscosity of the oil phase and water phase.The third objective is to investigate the effect of concentration of aqueous phase have on the droplet size.At the same time, the mixing time can influence the size of the oil droplet and its distribution. So that is another meaningful point to investigate.MethodologyViscosity of the oil is 10, 1000,12500and 30000 cSt.The agitator rotor can run from 10000 to 20000 RPMs for a rotor stator system.Resources requirementsLaboratory SafetyThe actor has attended an introduction about health and safety and will pursue all rules in the lab. While working with lots of harmful chemicals, I have read the instruction of chemical use which provides some zippy information in case of emergency. All the cutters using by stirring operations must be assessed before use. Lab coat, safety spectacles and nitrile rubber gloves should be dressed in case of potential danger. I have been working safety in the lab for about half a year in my college and I claim that I have known what I should do for emergent situation and decrease the degree of danger to the least.Work planBeneficiariesReferences

Advantages Of Aluminium As A Shipbuilding Material Engineering Essay

Advantages Of aluminum As A Shipbuilding Material applied science EssayThe affair of atomic number 13 in any vas involves a radical set of work regularitys comp ard to tralatitious channelisebuilding processes. Hence, the methods workd for the configurationulation of aluminum watercrafts are an central factor in the feasibleness moot. The join of aluminum is susceptible to tropical cracking and stop however be done apply certain processes. It is pregnant to employ the correct join methods to serve opposite decisions. As aluminum technology matures over the historic period, bleak production methods such as aluminum extrusions were introduced in a call down to save time and which has likewise proven to be economical.The implement of aluminum in ocean institutionalisebuilding exists in both forms first on that signal is the aluminum- stigma channelize, where in the graphic symbol, the superstructure is make from aluminum intended for topside system of weights saving, and the hull made from steel. Then on that point is the all-aluminum post, with the purpose of achieving a considerable boilersuit diminution in weight. It is important to lowstand that though both forms start their advantages, there are concept issues that must be addressed related to the use of aluminum in maritime vessel.Background1.2.1 Advantages of aluminium as a shipbuilding natural atomic number 13s most important characteristic is its light weight. When match with a reasonable flexible printin featureness, it has grown to become the choice of secular for many maritime ships in the world. In a research by Wade (1996), when it comes to naval shipbuilding, mission capability is the most heavily evaluated criteria of the program. pelt along is an increasingly important parameter under mission capability collect to the shift in the maritime strategy of the worlds navies from blue-water operations that include traditional Anti-Submarine War fare, Anti-Air Warfare and Surface Action to littoral operations counsel on surveillance, mine-clearing, counter-terrorism and support for landing operations.Ship bodily structure Committee (2012) suggests that there are many design parameters that can be optimized for a better performance, where morphological weight is one such parameter that declares the most out of comprise efficiency. According to Lamb and Beavers (2010), a come in weight relates straighta port to the reduction in material exists and operating addresss end-to-end the service life while reduction in the power invite dampens a melloweder fuel efficiency, higher speed, longer range and superfluous tonnage capacity. Also, aluminium gives additional benefits in the form of maintenance cost savings, where less painting is need.Brown (1999) mentioned that corrosion protection offered by aluminium is around 100 clock s deject than morphologic steel. The excellent corrosion- fortress of aluminium owes i ts trait to the thin layer of aluminium oxide that forms immediately when the surface is exposed to air, protecting it from external elements. The use of lightweight material like aluminium can also lead to stealth improvement (International Ship Structure Committee, 2012).In a timespan of just over a decade, aluminium high speed vessels have evolved from 30m long vessels that carried passengers and operated in littoral waters, to 120m long vessels that could press out both passengers and vehicles which operated in the open waters.Ship Structure Committee (2012) gave an overview of the first moment of aluminium in naval shipbuilding. Aluminium is a growingly popular admixture in the marine industry, typically the naval shipbuilding industry because of the immense range of physical and mechanical properties that can be created by means of the alloying process. Aluminium can be alloyed with chromium, copper, magnesium, manganese, scandium, silicon, silver, tin, titanium, zinc a nd zirconium. This wide range of alloying produces different grades of metal each with different properties.Promising properties includes reduction in taste corrosion susceptibility, improving of toughness, forcefulness and hardness, improving of might without a decrease in ductility, good weldability, ontogenesis in tensile military strength, elimination of hot cracking in welds, decrease in electrical conductivity and reduction in quench-sensitivity.However, the discrepancy of the material property and behaviour of aluminium was set up to vary with different sources (Sielski, 2007). The differences come as a result of different standards used for determining yield strength. Some tests were done exploitation a 50-mm gage length that measures only weld metal and heat-affected zone, and opposite tests use a 250-mm gage length sample that includes the base metal. Shown in the approaching(a) is one such example of aluminiums yield strength discrepancy.Table (1), extracted fr om (Sielski, 2007).1.2.2 Disadvantages of aluminium as a shipbuilding materialLike any other material, aluminium also has its drawbacks. The twain most important properties of a material are perhaps its yield strength and modulus of elasticity, a structure entrust be designed with considerations around the two properties to come across that it is able to moderate a presumption load without exceeding certain permissible deflections and punctuate level, where the emphasise level is equal to the yield express divided by a factor of safety.Albeit aluminium alloy has a high strength-to-weight ratio, it is to be noned that for e actually strong aluminium alloy in scathe of yield strength, there is a stronger geomorphological steel on tap(predicate). In legal injury of Modulus of Elasticity, which is the measure of stiffness of a material, aluminium and steel measures at 69 GPa and 200 GPa respectively. Since aluminiums stiffness is only a 3rd of steel, it result likely be d eformed three times to a greater extent easily than steel if put under high strain. Therefore the use of aluminium alloy is generally only limited to vessels of up to cxxx meters in length (Ship Structure Committee, 2008) the longer the vessel the more rigidifying is required, until a point of impracticability. The figure below illustrates the undefined yield strength of an aluminium alloy as compared to mild steel. It is important to none that for aluminium, unremarkably 0.2% strain limit or proof stress is used for design purposes.Yield Strength of Steel and AluminiumFigure (1), graph interpreted from (http//aluminium.matter.org.uk/content/html/eng/default.asp?catid=217pageid=2144417131)Another consideration is the low melting point of aluminium. As a naval vessel will likely be subjected to on-board fire if it comes under attack, the loss of mechanical properties of aluminium when temperature exceeds 200C (Ferraris, 2005) is unfavourable. Some classification societies and navi es do not permit the use of aluminium for structural applications. While DnV, ABS and RINA permit the use of light alloy and AA5xxx series, Lloyds scan does not.Brown (1999) noted that the cost of aluminium is roughly five times the cost of steel. Though it may be feasible to counterchange structural steel with aluminium alloy in view of the latters weight-saving and corrosion resistance properties, nevertheless it might not necessarily be economical.Table (2) original MethodsTo determine the applicability of aluminium in naval vessels, it is important to bearing at the circulating(prenominal) aluminium technology available. The manufacturing and production process for aluminium is relatively new. Aluminium weld like the FSW process was invented just two decades ago at the Welding Institute in the UK. For aluminium roles to be feasible for large scale production of naval vessels, whence(prenominal) the boilers suit productivity must be im turn up. Such can be achieved throu gh the application of aluminium extrusion and FSW as these methods offer significant cost savings (Collette et al., 2008). The existing studies on the reliability of aluminium stiffened panels can also give a clear idea of roughly of the impacts of aluminium usage.1.3.1 Aluminium extrusionsAdding to the advantages of using aluminium is its ability to be extruded. Extrusion can forego complex design of stiffeners to be produced which can, if used appropriately reduce the effect of stresses experienced in the mid-ship division due to hull girder curve. Collette et al. (2008) researched on the supreme strength and optimization of aluminium extrusions. Extrusion allows a designer to replace conventional welded plates or stiffeners with extruded profiles of varying weightinesses and it can be used on decks and side shells, places with large amount of rural area for an increase in weight savings. This method in effect reduces the number of welds to be performed and also reduces the complexity of the overall design of the structure.The demand examined three different types of extruded stiffeners, the conventional T type, the machinate type and the hat type for use on board a high-speed vessel. The performance of all three types was found to be similar, and the consume concluded that the panel should be selected establish on considerations kinda than which has the vanquish strength to weight ratio. Such considerations may include cost, ease of wrench and material fatigue. In the figure below, the get together of conventional plate to the stiffener requires join while for the extruded panel, both the plate and stiffener is extruded as a single unit.sectioned view of Aluminium Extrusion panelsFigure (2)1.3.2 MIG and FSW weldingTo consider the feasibility of using aluminium in shipbuilding, it is important to look at aluminiums weldability. Metal-Inert-Gas (MIG) welding, a subtype of Gas-Metal-Arc-Welding (GMAW) is the earliest form of welding for aluminiu m plates. In the 1950-60s, except developments gave more versatility which resulted in a highly used industrial process nowadays.Until recently, a new and better method of aluminium welding is invented, namely the Friction-Stir-Welding (FSW). FSW is a new concept of welding where the metal is not melted for the joining process so that the mechanical properties remain unaltered as much(prenominal) as likely. The join between the two plates is then softened for the metal to fuse using mechanical pressure.Kulekci (2010) notes that the FSW increases tensile, impact, and fatigue strength of the welded joint as compared to MIG process. Less hardness change and a narrower heat-affected zone can be expected in the welded material as less heat is produced from the FSW process. higher(prenominal) heat intensity from the MIG process can damage the mechanical properties of aluminium. By using FSW, production rate and quality will increase and production cost will decrease.Friction-Stir Weldi ng ProcessFigure (3), pictures from (http//www.fpe.co.uk/processes/friction-stir-welding)1.3.3 Heat-Affected ZoneMahoney et al. (1998) researched on the FSW process induced Heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the 7075 T-651 aluminium alloy. A series of tensile tests both longitudinal and transverse to the weld produced results that demonstrateed the weakest region is at the lower temperature location within 7 to 8mm from the edge of the weld area. While the median(a) out weldable aluminium alloy displays a 30 to 60% reduction in yield and ultimate strength, the loss in ultimate strength of FSW aluminium alloy is only around 25% and the yield strength at the HAZ is about 45% less than the base metal.1.3.4 Strength and reliability in aluminium stiffened panelsBenson, Downes and Dow (2009) note that as aluminium alloy is an established structural material in the shipbuilding industry for high speed crafts and naval vessels, the abridgment for large high speed craft operating in ocean envi ronments have since developed rigorous methodologies for the evaluation of ultimate strength in the hull girder.The fast increase in capacity and size of aluminium vessels has led to the demand in new engineering tools and solutions to effectively analyse the structural performance of these vessels. One of it could be the analysis on the ultimate and fatigue strength of aluminium stiffened panels. The ultimate and fatigue strength of the panels can be predicted by using the Reliability method, which consists of firstly using limit secernate equations to determine when the structural member has failed. Secondly, to determine the average value and the collection of random variables distribution in the limit state equation. Then the final step is to estimate the probability of a failure.Collette (2005) researched that in the distort-life or S-N fatigue approach, the fatigue life of a material is fit(p) by applying continuously a varying load of constant bounty until a crack is obse rved. However the main drawback is that it is not able to give feedback on the seriousness or the size of the crack. That is where the Initial-propagation of I-P method proved to be more useful. The main difference between both is that when the crack starts to form in the material, I-P method can estimate the growth using a fracture mechanics model.1.3.5 either-aluminium naval shipWith all the existing technologies and methods available for aluminium shipbuilding, aluminium has the potential to replace steel in the future as the main ship construction material. Lamb and Beavers (2010) studied on the significance of an all-aluminium naval ship. It proposes two types of aluminium frigate, one with a rock-bottom drawing off, the other an aluminium eq of a steel frigate, with identical swig and similar in weight. Aluminium ship with a reduced draught can allow for a reduction of stop consonant coefficient, thereby reduction resistance and increasing speed. With a finer hull, less power is required for propulsion, in turn cutting be during operation.The authors went on to conduct an analysis of steel and aluminium equivalent naval vessel design focusing on the acquisition and ownership costs. The findings showed that an aluminium ship can be constructed with just 7.5% of the cost of an equivalent steel ship thus far though 50% more labour hours are required for construction of the aluminium ship. The authors highlighted that this is possible due to the overwhelming benefits of aluminiums significantly lighter weight. Aluminium ship was also found to have operational and ownership cost advantages. Furthermore, emanation of aluminium technology in manufacturing process and design methods has closed the bed covering between steel and aluminium acquisition costs which in rough cases, shipyards are producing aluminium structures more cost effectively than equivalent steel structures.1.3.6 Hull-superstructure fundamental interactionOne of the important factor s to consider when designing a naval vessel is its hull-superstructure interaction. With the aid of structural analysis software MAESTRO, Hughes and Jeom (2010) determined that Hull-Superstructure fundamental interaction is a very complex study that can only be visualised effectively through 3D finite element model, rather than an inadequate beam theory. The vertical center of gravity for any naval vessel is critical, therefore it is important to keep the center of gravity as low as possible, either by reducing the size or using a lighter material in the superstructure.Another important thing to note of Hull-Superstructure fundamental interaction is the superstructure continuity with the ship side. A superstructure will participate substantially in hull girder fold in vertical continuation with the ship sides if the superstructure is long and continuous. It will undergo the same bending radius as the hull. If the superstructure rises from the same plane as that of the ship sides, then the bending will be maximal. To exclude the superstructure from any hull girder bending, it is possible to do so through offsetting it from the side sides. If superstructure is not in furrow with the ship sides, due to the flexibility of the deck beams, the sides of the superstructure can be subjected to a much larger radius of curvature. In the case of such design, then an intermediate transverse bulkhead must be included in amid-ship for the purpose of terminating excessive cyclic deflections and stresses in the deck structure.The above are oddly critical as a design consideration with regards to naval vessels. To further complicate matters in a naval vessel, the amid-ship portion is used for reticular activating system operation, or Replenishment At Sea. RAS operations are very difficult manoeuvres to execute and it has to take place in amid-ship due to the heavier pitch shot motions of the vessel at both ends. In addition to that, RAS operations also require a large open deck area on both sides of the vessel. This means a reduction in the size, or width of the superstructure in amid-ship, precisely the area which experiences the largest hull girder bending.1.3.7 Fatigue-induced crackingIn the case of an aluminium superstructure, the fatigue experienced will be even greater than for an equivalent steel superstructure (Grabovac et al., 1999). The cases of similar Royal Australian naval forces FFG-7 class frigates which experienced fatigue-induced cracking in the aluminium superstructure were caused by a combination of applied cyclic stresses and stress concentration interacting with a region of material weakness.This problem of fatigue-induced cracking has surfaced in more or less all ships of this class. The vessel has a continuous aluminium superstructure welded atop a steel hull, which is addicted to a substantial amount of hull-girder bending (Hughes and Jeom, 2010). This further reflects on how the Hull-Superstructure Interaction can affect a vessel. In the case of their study, composite material is then chosen for repairing of the cracked region by adhesive bonding, which proved to be working later on with subsequent series of assessments.methodological analysisLamb and Beavers (2010) introduced three types of ship for their study, the baseline steel, the aluminium reduced draft and the aluminium reduced block coefficient ship for comparison. The aluminium reduced block coefficient has the same draft as the baseline steel ship but its block coefficient is much lower than the other aluminium ship.The authors designed a 10m long mid-ship section of a naval vessel and then derived the scantlings using the ABS High Speed Naval Craft Rules. The scantlings include steel, aluminium and aluminium extrusion. Subsequently, bending moment and stress calculations were performed and the results shown were much less than the design stress of 23.5 t/cm for steel and 12.4 t/cm for aluminium. Reasons for the huge differences were given that most of the plating is based on allowable minimum weightiness rather than that derived from the formulas.1.4.1 Linear Stress analytic thinkingThe structural study in the attest paper will adopt the Linear Stress Analysis method. Similar to the work of Lamb and Beavers (2010), the material behaviour in this study will only be looked at in the elastic range. In the Linear Stress Analysis, the stress is assumed to be directly comparative to the strain and the structural deformations are proportional to the load. Shown below is the stress-strain graph of a material, where the limit of proportionality is the limit of the Linear Stress Analysis. Considerations will not be made for the behaviour after the limit of proportionality. Where (C) is the proof stress of the material.Stress-strain graphFigure (4), graph taken from (http//www.sr.bham.ac.uk/xmm/structures3.html)In the case of Non-linear Stress Analysis, problems are solved by applying the load slowly, and then take work o ut of the deflection with each ontogeny. Stresses will be updated with each increment until the upright load is applied. A more complex Non-linear FEA requires iterations for equilibrium with each increment hence it is a computationally expensive approach.1.5 DiscussionAluminium usage in naval shipbuilding has been increasing steadily over the years as shown in the literature above. Commercial and merchant aluminium vessels were reinforced with different purposes and intentions in mind, some built for an increase in speed, some for more capacity and some simply for costs saving. In the case of naval ships however, they share more similarities. Common objectives would be an increase in speed and payload, if not for a reduction in draft. It is therefore important to understand what different aluminium alloys can offer for different particular proposition function of the ship.Aluminium alloy as mentioned earlier was found to have some discrepancies among various authorities this migh t be due to the myopic definition of aluminiums yield strength due to the nature of its properties. Nonetheless, aluminiums yield strength will be taken as 0.2% of its strain limit.Designing an all-aluminium vessel of a 130m in length is an inherently complex task, and the strongest design, most street smart methods of production and manufacturing must be adopted to reduce the risk of a structural failure. Due to the nature of the method employed in this paper, where a standard steel hull will be replaced by an aluminium equivalent, it is important to consider the application of aluminium extrusion as a more effective way to increase the stiffness of the hull to ensure no deformation takes place prematurely. As fatigue-induced stresses was found on almost all of the FFG-7 class frigates, there is a need to study the hull-superstructure interaction of the vessel and understand the effects if applied on an all-aluminium vessel.Among the past studies, fewer have made comparison betw een a steel ship and an aluminium ship. One notable work is from Lamb and Beavers (2010), which based their calculations on a hypothesised frigate. This present paper differentiates from that in a way that it looks at the differences between the two materials if used on an existing vessel. For a ship that already has an optimum hull form, and re-designing it would be irrelevant due to particular mission capabilities, it will be useful to adopt this approach. Another way to look at it is that certain navies might prefer to build an aluminium equivalent of a steel Off-the-Shelf (OTS) ship like the FFG-7 which has proven to be a cheap and seaworthy ship, than to completely redesign an completed vessel. The design process of a new naval vessel can take up to several years.Apart from that, the past research of the all-aluminium ship with its cost and feasibility study was found to be outdated and non-applicable to the present year. The present research will provide an up to date costs comparison between steel and aluminium, inclusive of costs incurred in the welding process, and with the additional consideration for aluminium extrusions. Also critical will be the consideration of the various methods of welding.It is important to note that there are limitations within this feasibility study. The Linear Stress Analysis method adopted is only accurate to a certain extent and Non-linear Stress Analysis method should be adopted for any future work in this topic. Also, there are considerations which will not be covered in this feasibility study. Factors such as the lack of infrastructure for aluminium naval shipbuilding in cost of aluminium workshops and supply of aluminium panels will not be considered. Limitations may also include the lack of skilled workers and expertise in aluminium manufacturing and ship production.1.6 Aims and ObjectivesIn short, the purpose of this paper is to study the feasibility of using aluminium as a naval shipbuilding material. To achiev e that, it is necessary to include the common shipbuilding material, steel, for comparison. This paper aims to give a clearer comparison, in terms of designs, methods used, costs incurred and production time of the two ships.The US Navy FFG-7 class frigate will be used as a base ship. Designed in the mid-1970s by Bath weightlift Works and partner Gibbs Cox, FFG-7 frigate is intended to serve as an inexpensive musical accompaniment ship. Its area of operations includes protecting merchant convoys, replenish groups, landing forces, submarines and carrier battle groups also performing anti-submarine warfare or surface action. The frigate has a steel hull with an aluminium superstructure intended for weight saving.The overall bending stress characteristics in the mid-ship section of the frigate will be presented through load, buoyancy, cut back force and bending moment calculations one with steel hull and the other, a hypothesised aluminium hull of the same dimensions. Essentially, constraining the dimensions of the hull for an aluminium equivalent will result in an increase in plate thickness due to the reduction in the section moduli of aluminium. An alternative could be the increase in the number of stiffeners to be used and ultimately, the final design of the aluminium equivalent mid-ship section should include both methods for a section modulus increment. The results produced should show that an aluminium hull would still be sufficient in terms of section modulus to keep the maximum bending stress values under the design stress of the frigate, at 131.75 N/mm (Ship Structure Committee, 2002).All calculations in the present structural analysis will be based upon the linear elastic region of the materials only. Through the study on a mid-ship section, it can provide an idea of the stress characteristics of the entire vessel as the maximum bending moment will usually takes place in that region. Finite Element Analysis software MAESTRO will be used to model a mid-ship section of the naval vessel and give a better understanding of the structural stresses acting on the aluminium hull.The paper will go on further to present the costs relating to the two ships, in terms of acquisition, productivity and ownership of the vessels with respect to the current steel and aluminium prices. The results from the study will be analysed and discussed, after that the closing will be drawn accordingly.